|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
Articles |
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland 20814
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract Materials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Key Words: cerebral ischemia • interferon regulatory factor 1 null mice • gene expression • neuroprotection • reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
Abbreviations used: CBF, cerebral blood flow; HPRT, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase; IRF-1, interferon regulatory factor 1, iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; MCA, middle cerebral artery; NO, nitric oxide.
In experimental animals, as in humans, focal cerebral ischemia is associated with an intense inflammatory reaction that contributes to the secondary progression of ischemic brain injury (for review see references 1, 2). Within hours after the insult, cytokines and chemokines are produced in the ischemic brain (3–7). Cytokines contribute to the enhanced expression of adhesion molecules on cerebral endothelial cells, which, in turn, leads to adhesion of circulating neutrophils to cerebral endothelial cells (8–14). Neutrophils and, subsequently, monocytes migrate through the vessel wall and invade the injured brain (15–17). Inflammation-related enzymes, such as the "immunologic" isoform of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2, are induced in the postischemic brain (18–22). Furthermore, genes involved in programmed cell death, such as p53, Bax, and bcl2, are upregulated (23–26), whereas caspases, the cysteine proteases thought to be the effectors of programmed cell death, are activated (27, 28).
The molecular mechanisms by which this complex genomic response is orchestrated have not been elucidated. Although a number of transcription factors are activated after cerebral ischemia (29–32), no single transcription factor has been conclusively linked to the mechanisms that underlie tissue damage (for example see reference 33). One of the transcription factors that is important for gene expression during inflammation is interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-11 (for review see reference 34). IRF-1 was originally described as one of the transcriptional activators responsible for expression of interferon and interferon-inducible genes (35). More recently, the view has emerged that IRF-1 is involved in multiple functions including cellular responses to inflammation and programmed cell death (for review see reference 36). Therefore, it is conceivable that IRF-1 plays a role in gene expression after cerebral ischemia.
In this study, we investigated the potential contribution of IRF-1 to cerebral ischemic damage. Specifically, we sought to establish whether IRF-1 is upregulated after cerebral ischemia and, if so, whether its expression plays a central role in the mediation of tissue damage. Our studies demonstrate that occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) in mice leads to upregulation of IRF-1 mRNA within the ischemic region. Furthermore, IRF-1–/– mice fail to express IRF-1 after cerebral ischemia and exhibit an attenuation of brain injury after MCA occlusion. The effect is more pronounced in IRF-1–/– than in IRF-1+/– mice, and is associated with improved neurological outcome. The findings demonstrate that IRF-1 is involved in the evolution of brain damage after cerebral ischemia. IRF-1 represents the first transcription factor for which a link with ischemic brain injury has been established.
Induction of Focal Cerebral Ischemia
Determination of IRF-1 mRNA by Reverse Transcription PCR
Determination of Infarct Volume
Determination of Neurological Deficits
Monitoring of Cerebral Blood Flow
MCA Occlusion.
Cerebrovascular Reactivity to Hypercapnia.
Data Analysis
Materials and Methods
Top
Abstract
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
Animals
All animal procedures were approved by the Animal Care Committee of the University of Minnesota. Mice with a targeted mutation in the IRF-1 gene (homozygous [–/–] mice and their heterozygous [+/–] littermates) were originally obtained from Dr. T.W. Mak (Amgen Institute, Toronto, Canada) and had been back-crossed to C57BL/6 mice three to five times. Mice were subsequently bred in a virus antibody-free facility at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. The IRF-1–/– colony was maintained by mating IRF-1–/– mice to either IRF-1–/– or IRF-1+/– mice. An IRF-1 wild-type (+/+) colony was maintained by mating IRF-1+/+ mice that were derived from heterozygous mating of either IRF-1+/+ or IRF-1+/– mice. To prevent the background of the IRF-1–/– and IRF-1+/+ colonies from straying, all new breeding pairs were the progeny of IRF-1+/– to IRF-1+/– matings. The genotype of all IRF-1 mice was determined by PCR using primers and methods described previously (37). The IRF-1 primers amplify a 300-bp sequence from IRF-1+/+ and IRF-1+/– genomic DNA, whereas neo primers amplify a product of 525 bp, present only in IRF-1+/– and IRF-1–/– mice. C57BL/6 mice were used as controls in some experiments and were obtained from The Jackson Laboratory.
Focal cerebral ischemia was produced by occlusion of the MCA as previously described (20). Mice were anesthetized with 2% halothane in 100% oxygen. Body temperature was maintained at 37 ± 0.5°C by a thermostatically controlled infrared lamp. A 2-mm hole was drilled in the inferior portion of the temporal bone to expose the left MCA. The MCA was elevated and cauterized distal to the origin of the lenticulostriate branches. Mice in which the MCA was exposed but not occluded served as sham-operated controls. Wounds were sutured and mice were allowed to recover and returned to their cages. Rectal temperature was controlled until mice regained full consciousness. Mice were killed at different time points after MCA occlusion for determination of IRF-1 mRNA or measurement of infarct size (see below).
C57BL/6 and IRF-1+/+, IRF-1+/–, and IRF-1–/– mice were killed various times after MCA occlusion (n = 6–12/time point). As described in detail elsewhere (20), a 2-mm-thick coronal brain slice was cut at the level of the optic chiasm and the infarcted cortex was dissected using the corpus callosum as a ventral landmark. The homotopic region of the contralateral cortex was also sampled. Total RNA was extracted, and the integrity of the RNA was determined on denaturing formaldehyde gels. IRF-1 and hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT) mRNA were detected by reverse transcription PCR as described in detail previously (37, 38). The primer and probe sequences for IRF-1 and HPRT have been published previously (37–39). Cycle numbers for IRF-1 and HPRT were 29 and 23, respectively. The IRF-1 primers amplify a 148-bp fragment from cDNA. After agarose gel electrophoresis, amplified products were transferred to Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham) by standard Southern blotting techniques. Blots were hybridized with an internal oligonucleotide probe. Labeling of the probe and subsequent detection was carried out with the enhanced chemiluminescence system (ECL; Amersham) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Chemiluminescent signals were quantified using a scanner and imaging software (NIH Image; National Institutes of Health). The relative gene expression in test samples was assessed by linear regression analysis of a standard curve generated from a cDNA sample known to be positive for the gene of interest. Data were normalized to the housekeeping gene HPRT.
Mice were killed 4 d after MCA occlusion. Brains were removed and frozen in cooled isopentane (–30°C). Coronal forebrain sections (30-µm-thick) were serially cut in a cryostat, collected at 150-µm intervals, and stained with thionin for determination of infarct volume by an image analyzer (MCID, Imaging Research Inc.; reference 20). To factor out the contribution of ischemic edema to the total volume of the lesion, infarct volume in cerebral cortex was corrected for swelling (see reference 20 for details). The correction method is based on the determination of ischemic swelling by comparing the volume of ischemic and nonischemic hemispheres (40).
Neurological deficits were assessed by a neurological scoring system widely used in mice (for examples see references 41, 42) that has been described previously (20). The examiner was not aware of the identity of the mice. The neurological scores were as follows: 0, normal motor function; 1, flexion of torso and contralateral forelimb upon lifting the mouse by the tail; 2, circling to the contralateral side when holding the mouse by the tail on a flat surface, but normal posture at rest; 3, leaning to the contralateral side at rest; 4, no spontaneous motor activity (20). Mice were evaluated before MCA occlusion and at 24-h intervals up to 4 d after MCA occlusion.
Techniques used for monitoring cerebral blood flow (CBF) in mice have been described in detail previously (20). Mice were anesthetized with halothane (maintenance 1%) and the femoral artery and trachea were cannulated. Mice were artificially ventilated with an oxygen-nitrogen mixture by a mechanical ventilator (SAR-830; CWI Inc.). The inspiration time was set at 0.1 s, the respiratory rate at 120/min, and the inspiratory flow at 
250 ml/min. The oxygen concentration in the mixture was adjusted to maintain arterial pO2 between 150 and 170 mmHg. End-tidal CO2 was continuously monitored using a CO2 analyzer (Capstar-100; CWI Inc.) and maintained at 2.6–2.7%, which corresponds to a pCO2 of 33–35 mmHg (20).
For monitoring changes in CBF produced by MCA occlusion, two laser-Doppler flow probes (Vasamedic) were placed through burr holes placed in the center (3.5 mm lateral to the midline and 1 caudal to bregma) and the periphery (1.5 mm lateral to the midline and 1.7 mm rostral to lambda) of the ischemic territory (20, 43). The location of the probe was selected in preliminary experiments to correspond to the region of brain that is spared from infarction in the IRF-1–deficient mice. After placement of the probes, the MCA was occluded and CBF was monitored for 90 min. CBF data are expressed as percentage of the preocclusion value.
Techniques for testing cerebral vascular reactivity to hypercapnia in mice were similar to those previously described (20). Mice were anesthetized and instrumented as described above. CBF was continuously monitored in the frontoparietal cortex with a laser-Doppler probe. After stabilization of arterial pressure and blood gases, CO2 was introduced into the circuit of the ventilator and the increase in CBF produced by hypercapnia was monitored. CO2 administration was discontinued after the CBF increase reached a plateau (usually 2–3 min).
Data in text and figures are expressed as means ± SEM. Multiple comparisons were evaluated statistically by the analysis of variance and Tukey's test. Two-group comparisons were analyzed by the two-tailed Student's t test for independent samples. Neurological scores were analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance followed by the Tukey-Kramer test (Systat) (20). For all procedures, probability values of <0.05 were considered statistically significant.
Results
Top
Abstract
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
Postischemic IRF-1 mRNA Expression in C57BL/6 and IRF-1 Mice.
We first sought to determine if focal cerebral ischemia enhances IRF-1 mRNA expression. In C57BL/6 mice, MCA occlusion was associated with pronounced upregulation of IRF-1 mRNA in the postischemic brain (Fig. 1). IRF-1 mRNA expression was increased by 12 h and remained elevated 1–7 d after MCA occlusion (P < 0.05 from sham-operated mice; analysis of variance and Tukey's test). IRF-1 mRNA expression did not increase in the contralateral (nonischemic) cortex (P > 0.05) (Fig. 1). IRF-1 mRNA expression was reduced in IRF-1+/– mice and absent in IRF-1–/– mice (Fig. 2).
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Several transcription factors have been shown to be activated after cerebral ischemia. For example, activator protein 1, factors encoded by early genes, Stat3, hypoxia inducible factor 1, and nuclear factor 
b are upregulated after focal or global cerebral ischemia (29–32). However, direct evidence for an involvement of these transcription factors in the mechanisms of ischemic brain injury is lacking (for example see reference 33). In the present study, we have demonstrated that deletion of IRF-1 reduces the magnitude of cerebral ischemic damage and improves neurological recovery. Therefore, IRF-1 is the first transcription factor that has been shown to be linked directly to the development of ischemic brain injury.
Like most mice generated by homologous recombination, the genetic background of IRF-1–/– is heterogeneous, including both C57BL/6 and SV129 genes (44). However, such genetic heterogeneity is unlikely to contribute to the observed reduction in infarct volume. This conclusion is supported by the following observations. First, the infarct volume of IRF-1+/+ mice, bred from the same heterozygotic stock from which the homozygous knockouts were derived, was not different from that of inbred wild-type C57BL/6 controls. Second, a clear gene dosage effect is observed when wild-type, IRF-1+/–, and IRF-1–/– mice are compared for IRF-1 mRNA or infarct volume. The reduction in infarct volume cannot be attributed to differences in the degree of cerebral ischemia between C57BL/6 and IRF-1–/– mice: MCA occlusion produced comparable decreases in CBF in wild-type and IRF-1–/– mice. Furthermore, arterial pressure and the reactivity of the cerebral circulation to the vasodilation produced by hypercapnia were not altered in IRF-1–/– mice. Therefore, genetic factors affecting the susceptibility of the brain to cerebral ischemia or vascular factors influencing the degree of ischemia cannot be responsible for the protection observed in IRF-1–/– mice.
After induction of cerebral ischemia, the temporal evolution of the ensuing brain damage is heterogeneous. In the center of the ischemic territory, where the ischemic insult is most severe, irreversible neuronal damage occurs rapidly (45, 46). Pathogenic factors involved in the rapid phase of the damage include energy failure, glutamate excitotoxicity, and reactive oxygen species (47–49). In the peripheral regions of the ischemic territory, the damage progresses at a slower pace, reaching a maximum 2–3 d after induction of ischemia (46, 50). Factors contributing to the delayed evolution of the damage include postischemic inflammation and apoptosis (1, 51). The observation that mice lacking the IRF-1 gene are relatively protected from ischemic infarction suggests that IRF-1 is involved in the mechanisms of ischemic brain injury. However, the delayed time course of its expression suggests that this transcription factor is involved mainly in events occurring in the late stages of cerebral ischemia. The observation that neurological deficits in IRF-1–/– mice are not different from those of wild-type mice 24 h after ischemia and improve 3–4 d later is also consistent with the hypothesis that IRF-1 contributes to the progression, rather than the initiation, of tissue damage.
IRF-1 deletion could attenuate the progression of ischemic brain injury by different mechanisms. One possibility is that IRF-1 deletion interferes with the inflammatory response associated with cerebral ischemia. Cerebral ischemia induces an inflammatory reaction in the injured brain (15– 17). Cytokines produced in the ischemic tissue are one of the factors that induce the expression of adhesion molecules in endothelial cells (9–12). Blood-borne neutrophils adhere to the cerebral endothelium, cross the blood vessel wall, and migrate into the brain parenchyma (13, 14, 17). Neutrophils contribute to ischemic brain injury because tissue damage is reduced if their invasion of the brain parenchyma is prevented (52–55; for review see reference 1). After cerebral ischemia, neutrophils express iNOS, an enzyme that produces toxic amounts of NO (18–20). Evidence suggests that NO produced by iNOS participates in ischemic brain injury. Administration of inhibitors of iNOS reduces ischemic damage, whereas iNOS–/– mice have smaller infarcts and a better neurological outcome after MCA occlusion (19, 20, 56). Because IRF-1 plays a role in iNOS transcription (37, 57, 58), it is possible that iNOS is not expressed in IRF-1–/– mice. Therefore, reduced iNOS expression could be one of the mechanisms by which IRF-1–/– mice are protected from cerebral ischemia. On the other hand, the possibility that postischemic iNOS expression is driven by nuclear factor B and hypoxia inducible factor 1, transcription factors that are also upregulated after cerebral ischemia (30, 32), cannot be ruled out.
Another potential mechanism for the reduction of ischemic injury in IRF-1–/– mice is inhibition of programmed cell death. There is increasing evidence that programmed cell death occurs after focal cerebral ischemia (for review see reference 51). Genes involved in the apoptotic cascade are upregulated after cerebral ischemia (23–26), and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, one of the hallmarks of apoptosis, occurs (59–62). Several lines of evidence suggest that apoptosis plays a pivotal role in the mechanisms of brain injury. Transgenic mice that overexpress the anti-apoptotic protein bcl2 or mice with a null mutation of p53, a protein that promotes apoptosis, are relatively protected from the effects of focal ischemia (63, 64). In addition, inhibition of the caspase family of cysteine proteases, one of the effectors of apoptotic cell death, reduces cerebral ischemic damage (65–67). There is evidence that IRF-1 is involved in the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis. For example, DNA damage-induced apoptosis is attenuated in T-lymphocytes and in macrophages lacking IRF-1 (68, 69). Therefore, it is conceivable that postischemic apoptotic neuronal death is attenuated in IRF-1–/– mice resulting in less brain damage.
The mechanisms of IRF-1 expression after cerebral ischemia and its cellular localization have not been elucidated. In other systems, IRF-1 is induced by a wide variety of factors including IFNs and cytokines (34). Some of these factors, such as IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-
, are also expressed after cerebral ischemia (4–6) and could conceivably trigger IRF-1 mRNA expression. Furthermore, intracellular second messengers, such as calcium and protein kinase C, may also induce IRF-1 expression (70). These pathways are activated after cerebral ischemia (for examples see references 71, 72) and could contribute to trigger IRF-1 expression. Therefore, multiple mechanisms are likely to contribute to IRF-1 upregulation. Further studies will be required to address these issues.
In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the mRNA encoding for the transcription factor IRF-1 is markedly upregulated after focal cerebral ischemia. We have also shown that IRF-1–/– mice are substantially protected from the brain damage and neurological deficits produced by MCA occlusion. The protection develops 2–3 d after induction of ischemia. The findings suggest that IRF-1–inducible genes contribute to the late stages of tissue damage after cerebral ischemia. Thus, IRF-1 is a critical transcription factor in the molecular mechanisms of ischemic brain injury and, as such, might be a new target for therapeutic interventions in ischemic stroke.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
Submitted: 19 October 1998
Revised: 8 December 1998
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
1 Feuerstein, G.Z., X. Wang and F.C. Barone. 1998. Inflammatory mediators and brain injury: The role of cytokines and chemokines in stroke and CNS diseases. In Cerebrovascular Diseases. M.D. Ginsberg and J. Bogousslavsky, editors. Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA. 507–531.
2 Kochanek PM & Hallenbeck JM. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes and monocyte/macrophages in the pathogenesis of cerebral ischemia and stroke, Stroke, 1992, 23, 1367–1379.
3 Kim JS, Gautam SC, Chopp M, Zaloga C, Jones ML, Ward PA & Welch KM. Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1 after focal cerebral ischemia in the rat, J Neuroimmunol, 1995, 56, 127–134.[Medline]
4 Liu T, Clark RK, McDonnell PC, Young PR, White RF, Barone FC & Feuerstein GZ. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha expression in ischemic neurons, Stroke, 1994, 25, 1481–1488.[Abstract]
5 Wang X, Yue TL, Young PR, Barone FC & Feuerstein GZ. Expression of interleukin-6, c-fos, and zif268 mRNAs in rat ischemic cortex, J Cereb Blood Flow Metabol, 1995, 15, 166–171.[Medline]
6 Buttini M, Sauter A & Boddeke HWGM. Induction of interleukin-1 beta after focal cerebral ischemia in the rat, Mol Brain Res, 1994, 23, 126–134.[Medline]
7 Yamasaki Y, Matsuo Y, Matsuura N, Onodera H, Itoyama Y & Kogure K. Transient increase of cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant, a member of the interleukin-8 family, in ischemic brain areas after focal ischemia in rats, Stroke, 1995, 26, 318–322.
8 Ember JA, del Zoppo GJ, Mori E, Thomas WS, Copeland BR & Hugli TE. Polymorphonuclear leukocyte behavior in a nonhuman primate focal ischemia model, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1994, 14, 1046–1054.[Medline]
9 Jander S, Kraemer M, Schroeter M, Witte OW & Stoll G. Lymphocytic infiltration and expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in photochemically-induced ischemia of the rat cortex, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1995, 15, 42–51.[Medline]
10 Okada Y, Copeland BR, Mori E, Tung MM, Thomas WS & Del Zoppo GJ. P-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression after focal brain ischemia and reperfusion, Stroke, 1994, 25, 202–211.[Abstract]
11 Wang X, Siren AL, Liu Y, Yue TL, Barone FC & Feuerstein GZ. Upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) on brain microvascular endothelial cells in rat ischemic cortex, Mol Brain Res, 1994, 26, 61–68.[Medline]
12 Wang X, Yue TL, Barone FC & Feuerstein GZ. Demonstration of increased endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 mRNA expression in rat ischemic cortex, Stroke, 1995, 26, 1665–1668.
13 Garcia JH, Liu KF, Yoshida Y, Lian J, Chen S & del Zoppo GJ. Influx of leukocytes and platelets in an evolving brain infarct, Am J Pathol, 1994, 144, 188–199.[Abstract]
14 Zhang RL, Chopp M, Chen H & Garcia JH. Temporal profile of ischemic tissue damage, neutrophil response, and vascular plugging following permanent and transient (2H) middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat, J Neurol Sci, 1994, 125, 3–10.[Medline]
15 Pozzilli C, Lenzi GL, Argentino C, Carolei A, Rasura M, Signore A, Bozzao L & Pozzilli P. Imaging of leukocytic infiltration in human cerebral infarcts, Stroke, 1985, 16, 251–255.
16 Akopov SE, Simonian NA & Grigorian GS. Dynamics of polymorphonuclear accumulation in acute cerebral infarction and their correlation with brain tissue damage, Stroke, 1996, 27, 1739–1743.
17 Clark RK, Lee EV, Fish CJ, White RF, Price WJ, Jonak ZL & Feuerstein GZ. Development of tissue damage, inflammation and resolution following stroke: an immunohistochemical and quantitative planimetric study, Brain Res Bull, 1993, 31, 565–572.[Medline]
18 Iadecola C, Zhang F, Xu X, Casey R & Ross ME. Inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression in brain following cerebral ischemia, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1995, 15, 378–384.[Medline]
19 Iadecola C, Zhang F, Casey R, Clark HB & Ross ME. Inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression in vascular cells after transient focal cerebral ischemia, Stroke, 1996, 27, 1373–1380.
20 Iadecola C, Zhang F, Casey R, Nagayama M & Ross ME. Delayed reduction in ischemic brain injury and neurological deficits in mice lacking the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene, J Neurosci, 1997, 17, 9157–9164.
21 Nogawa S, Zhang F, Ross ME & Iadecola C. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 gene expression in neurons contributes to ischemic brain damage, J Neurosci, 1997, 17, 2746–2755.
22 Nogawa S, Forster C, Zhang F, Nagayama M, Ross ME & Iadecola C. Interaction between inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 after cerebral ischemia, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1998, 95, 10966–10971.
23 Asahi M, Hoshimaru M, Uemura Y, Tokime T, Kojima M, Ohtsuka T, Matsuura N, Aoki T, Shibahara K & Kikuchi H. Expression of interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme gene family and bcl-2 gene family in the rat brain following permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1997, 17, 11–18.[Medline]
24 Li Y, Chopp M, Zhang ZG, Zaloga C, Niewenhuis L & Gautam S. p53-immunoreactive protein and p53 mRNA expression after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats, Stroke, 1994, 25, 849–855.[Abstract]
25 Chen J, Graham SH, Chan PH, Lan J, Zhou RL & Simon RP. bcl-2 is expressed in neurons that survive focal ischemia in the rat, Neuroreport, 1995, 6, 394–398.[Medline]
26 Gillardon F, Lenz C, Waschke KF, Krajewski S, Reed JC, Zimmermann M & Kuschinsky W. Altered expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-X, Bax, and c-Fos colocalizes with DNA fragmentation and ischemic cell damage following middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats, Brain Res Mol Brain Res, 1996, 40, 254–260.[Medline]
27 Namura S, Zhu J, Fink K, Endres M, Srinivasan A, Tomaselli KJ, Yuan J & Moskowitz MA. Activation and cleavage of caspase-3 in apoptosis induced by experimental cerebral ischemia, J Neurosci, 1998, 18, 3659–3668.
28 Chen J, Nagayama T, Jin K, Stetler RA, Zhu RL, Graham SH & Simon RP. Induction of caspase-3-like protease may mediate delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus after transient cerebral ischemia, J Neurosci, 1998, 18, 4914–4928.
29 An G, Lin TN, Liu JS, Xue JJ, He YY & Hsu CY. Expression of c-fos and c-jun family genes after focal cerebral ischemia, Ann Neurol, 1993, 33, 457–464.[Medline]
30 Clemens JA, Stephenson DT, Smalstig EB, Dixon EP & Little SP. Global ischemia activates nuclear factor-kappa B in forebrain neurons of rats, Stroke, 1997, 28, 1073–1080.
31 Planas AM, Soriano MA, Berruezo M, Justicia C, Estrada A, Pitarch S & Ferrer I. Induction of Stat3, a signal transducer and transcription factor, in reactive microglia following transient focal cerebral ischaemia, Eur J Neurosci, 1996, 8, 2612–2618.[Medline]
32 Bergeron, M., D.M. Ferriero, and F.R. Sharp. 1997. Expression of hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) in rat brain after focal ischemia. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 17(Suppl. 1):S505.
33 Akins PT, Liu PK & Hsu CY. Immediate early gene expression in response to cerebral ischemia, friend or foe? , Stroke, 1996, 27, 1682–1687.
34 Nguyen H, Hiscott J & Pitha PM. The growing family of interferon regulatory factors, Cytokine Growth Factor Rev, 1997, 8, 293–312.[Medline]
35 Miyamoto M, Fujita T, Kimura Y, Maruyama M, Harada H, Sudo Y, Miyata T & Taniguchi T. Regulated expression of a gene encoding a nuclear factor, IRF-1, that specifically binds to IFN-beta gene regulatory elements, Cell, 1988, 54, 903–913.[Medline]
36 Vaughan PS, van Wijnen AJ, Stein JL & Stein GS. Interferon regulatory factors: growth control and histone gene regulation—it's not just interferon anymore, J Mol Med, 1997, 75, 348–359.[Medline]
37 Salkowski CA, Barber SA, Detore GR & Vogel SN. Differential dysregulation of nitric oxide production in macrophages with targeted disruptions in IFN regulatory factor-1 and -2 genes, J Immunol, 1996, 156, 3107–3110.[Abstract]
38 Barber SA, Fultz MJ, Salkowski CA & Vogel SN. Differential expression of interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1), IRF- 2, and interferon consensus sequence binding protein genes in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-responsive and LPS-hyporesponsive macrophages, Infect Immun, 1995, 63, 601–608.[Abstract]
39 Manthey CL, Perera PY, Salkowski CA & Vogel SN. Taxol provides a second signal for murine macrophage tumoricidal activity, J Immunol, 1994, 152, 825–831.[Abstract]
40 Lin T-N, He YY, Wu G, Khan M & Hsu CY. Effect of brain edema on infarct volume in a focal cerebral ischemia model in rats, Stroke, 1993, 24, 117–121.
41 Huang A, Huang PL, Panahian N, Dalkara T, Fishman MC & Moskowitz MA. Effects of cerebral ischemia in mice deficient in neuronal nitric oxide synthase, Science, 1994, 265, 1883–1885.
42 Yang G, Chan PH, Chen J, Carlson E, Chen SF, Weinstein P, Epstein CJ & Kamii H. Human copper-zinc superoxide dismutase transgenic mice are highly resistant to reperfusion injury after focal cerebral ischemia, Stroke, 1994, 25, 165–170.[Abstract]
43 Chan PH, Kamii H, Yang G, Gafni J, Epstein CJ, Carlson E & Reola L. Brain infarction is not reduced in SOD-1 transgenic mice after a permanent focal cerebral ischemia, Neuroreport, 1993, 5, 293–296.[Medline]
44 Gerlai R. Gene-targeting studies of mammalian behavior: is it the mutation or the background genotype? , Trends Neurosci, 1996, 19, 177–181.[Medline]
45 Garcia JH, Liu KF & Ho KL. Neuronal necrosis after middle cerebral artery occlusion in Wistar rats progresses at different time intervals in the caudoputamen and the cortex, Stroke, 1995, 26, 636–642.
46 Dereski MO, Chopp M, Knight RA, Rodolosi LC & Garcia JH. The heterogeneous temporal evolution of focal ischemic neuronal damage in the rat, Acta Neuropathol, 1993, 85, 327–333.[Medline]
47 Choi DW. Ischemia-induced neuronal apoptosis, Curr Opin Neurobiol, 1996, 6, 667–672.[Medline]
48 Hossmann K-A. Viability thresholds and the penumbra of focal ischemia, Ann Neurol, 1994, 36, 557–565.[Medline]
49 Chan PH. Role of oxidants in ischemic brain damage, Stroke, 1996, 27, 1124–1129.
50 Garcia JH, Yoshida Y, Chen H, Li Y, Zhang ZG, Lian J, Chen S & Chopp M. Progression from ischemic injury to infarct following middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat, Am J Pathol, 1993, 142, 623–635.[Abstract]
51 MacManus JP & Linnik MD. Gene expression induced by cerebral ischemia: an apoptotic perspective, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1997, 17, 815–832.[Medline]
52 Bednar MM, Raymond S, McAuliffe T, Lodge PA & Gross CG. The role of neutrophils and platelets in a rabbit model of thromboembolic stroke, Stroke, 1991, 22, 44–50.
53 Bowes MP, Zivin JA & Rothlein R. Monoclonal antibody to the ICAM-1 adhesion site reduces neurological damage in a rabbit cerebral embolism stroke model, Exp Neurology, 1993, 119, 215–219.[Medline]
54 Chen M, Chopp M & Bodzin G. Neutropenia reduces the volume of cerebral infarct after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat, Neurosci Res Commun, 1992, 11, 93–99.
55 Matsuo Y, Onodera H, Shiga Y, Nakamura M, Ninomiya M, Kihara T & Kogure K. Correlation between myeloperoxidase-quantified neutrophil accumulation and ischemia brain injury in the rat, Stroke, 1994, 25, 1469–1475.[Abstract]
56 Iadecola C, Zhang F & Xu X. Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase ameliorates cerebral ischemic damage, Am J Physiol, 1995, 268, R286–R292.[Medline]
57 Kamijo R, Harada H, Matsuyama T, Bosland M, Gerecitano J, Shapiro D, Le J, Koh SI, Kimura T, Green SJ et al.. Requirement for transcription factor IRF-1 in NO synthase induction in macrophages, Science, 1994, 263, 1612–1615.
58 Martin E, Nathan C & Xie QW. Role of interferon regulatory factor 1 in induction of nitric oxide synthase, J Exp Med, 1994, 180, 977–984.
59 Linnik MD, Zobrist RH & Hatfield MD. Evidence supporting a role for programmed cell death in focal cerebral ischemia in rats, Stroke, 1993, 24, 2002–2009.
60 MacManus JP, Hill IE, Huang ZG, Rasquinha I, Xue D & Buchan AM. DNA damage consistent with apoptosis in transient focal ischaemic neocortex, Neuroreport, 1994, 5, 493–496.[Medline]
61 Charriaut-Marlangue C, Margaill I, Plotkine M & Ben-Ari Y. Early endonuclease activation following reversible focal ischemia in the rat brain, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1995, 15, 385–388.[Medline]
62 Li Y, Chopp M, Jiang N, Yao F & Zaloga C. Temporal profile of in situ DNA fragmentation after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1995, 15, 389–397.[Medline]
63 Martinou JC, Dubois DM, Staple JK, Rodriguez I, Frankowski H, Missotten M, Albertini P, Talabot D, Catsicas S, Pietra C et al.. Overexpression of BCL-2 in transgenic mice protects neurons from naturally occurring cell death and experimental ischemia, Neuron, 1994, 13, 1017–1030.[Medline]
64 Crumrine RC, Thomas AL & Morgan PF. Attenuation of p53 expression protects against focal ischemic damage in transgenic mice, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1994, 14, 887–891.[Medline]
65 Hara H, Friedlander RM, Gagliardini V, Ayata C, Fink K, Huang Z, Shimizu-Sasamata M, Yuan J & Moskowitz MA. Inhibition of interleukin 1β converting enzyme family proteases reduces ischemic and excitotoxic neuronal damage, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1997, 94, 2007–2012.
66 Endres M, Namura S, Shimizu-Sasamata M, Waeber C, Zhang L, Gomez-Isla T, Hyman BT & Moskowitz MA. Attenuation of delayed neuronal death after mild focal ischemia in mice by inhibition of the caspase family, J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 1998, 18, 238–247.[Medline]
67 Loddick SA, MacKenzie A & Rothwell NJ. An ICE inhibitor, z-VAD-DCB attenuates ischaemic brain damage in the rat, Neuroreport, 1996, 7, 1465–1468.[Medline]
68 Tamura T, Ishihara M, Lamphier MS, Tanaka N, Oishi I, Aizawa S, Matsuyama T, Mak TW, Taki S & Taniguchi T. An IRF-1-dependent pathway of DNA damage-induced apoptosis in mitogen-activated T lymphocytes, Nature, 1995, 376, 596–599.[Medline]
69 Lakics V & Vogel SN. Lipopolysaccharide and ceramide use divergent signaling pathways to induce cell death in murine macrophages, J Immunol, 1998, 161, 2490–2500.
70 Fujita T, Reis LF, Watanabe N, Kimura Y, Taniguchi T & Vilcek J. Induction of the transcription factor IRF-1 and interferon-beta mRNAs by cytokines and activators of second-messenger pathways, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1989, 86, 9936–9940.
71 Sieber FE, Traystman RJ, Brown PR & Martin LJ. Protein kinase C expression and activity after global incomplete cerebral ischemia in dogs, Stroke, 1998, 29, 1445–1452.
72 Kristian T & Siesjo BK. Calcium in ischemic cell death, Stroke, 1998, 29, 705–718.
CiteULike 
Complore 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us 
Digg 
Facebook 
Reddit 
Technorati 
Twitter What's this?
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
) or contralateral to the occluded MCA (n = 6–12/time point). mRNA data were normalized to the housekeeping gene HPRT, and are expressed as fold-induction (mean ± SEM) relative to unoperated mice. Since no major differences in IRF-1 mRNA were observed in sham- operated mice killed 12 h and 1, 2, 4, and 7 d after sham operation (n = 1–2/time point), mRNA data from all sham-operated mice were averaged. After MCA occlusion IRF-1 mRNA was markedly upregulated in the ischemic cortex but not contralaterally (*P < 0.05 from contralateral side; Student's t test). (B) A representative Southern blot from the ischemic side of untreated, sham-operated, and MCA-occluded mice (n = 3/group) is shown. Analysis of mRNA for the housekeeping gene HPRT showed no difference among groups in the level of expression (data not shown; see also Fig. 
) of C57BL/6 mice. IRF-1 mRNA is reduced in IRF-1+/– mice and is absent in IRF-1–/–.
