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H.W. and S.B. are at Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technische Universität München, 81675 Munich, Germany

CORRESPONDENCE H.W.: h.wagner{at}lrz.tu-muenchen.de

Abstract
Immunological defense depends on the ability of the innate immune system to recognize invading microbes as foreign and thus eliminate them. The Toll-like receptors (TLRs) help detect foreign invaders by sensing various pathogen-associated molecules, including microbial RNA and DNA. At present, it is unclear whether and how the immune system distinguishes between microbial and self nucleic acids, as host-derived RNA and DNA also stimulate TLRs. In addition, recent studies have revealed the existence of TLR-independent pathways that are activated in response to microbial and host nucleic acids.

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